In addition to these individual reformers and the movements that we have mentioned, there were many other factors that were at work to help bring about changes within the Roman church. First of all, there were a series of “reforming councils.”

The Reforming Councils

A series of church councils in the first half of the 15^th Century sought to reform the church from within. It was referred to as reform “root and branch.” In other words, not an external reform, but an internal reform—reform the very essence of the Roman church—not leave the church, but be within the church to make these reforms.

The first of these councils met in Pisa in 1409. The purpose of this reforming council was to heal the great schism which had taken place. You remember, we had talked about this. It occurred back in the latter part of the 14^th Century, in 1378. The practice had been the appointment of a pope in Rome, and then that pope would go to Avignon in southern France and live there. However, in 1378, the pope that was appointed decided to stay in Rome, and not go to southern France. This brought about something of revolt among the bishops and the other church officials, who had become accustomed to living in the “lap of luxury” in southern France. They let the pope who had been selected stay in Rome; however, they chose their own pope there in southern France. This was referred to by a number of names, including “The Babylonian Captivity,” you will recall; but it was referred to primarily as “The Great Schism” in the church.

This Council of Pisa chose to declare that the two popes, the one in Rome and the one in southern France, were not popes, at all. And this Council chose their own pope. Thus, there were three popes for a period of time.

Well, this brought about, then, the Council of Constance. This Council met for a period of four hears, 1414 to 1418. They were finally successful in removing all three of these popes and appointing still another pope. This pope would gain recognition and would eventually be accepted as the “legitimate pope.”

In addition to working to heal this great schism in the Roman church, this Council of Constance would also attempt to combat heresy and carry out more thorough reforms in the organization of the Roman church and in the doctrine of the church. A serious attempt on their part was made to strengthen the power of the Council, and actually weaken the authority of the pope. And they did this by providing more frequent and regular Council meetings. By the way, this Council of Constance is known and remembered because they are the ones who condemned and oversaw the execution of John Hus.

Well, there were other so-called “reforming councils.” They included the Councils of Basle, Ferrara and Florence. But none of these councils were successful in bring about any substantive changes, either in the organization or the doctrine of the Roman church.

The Renaissance

There was another factor which contributed to the Protestant Reformation, and that is what we know as the period of the Renaissance. Beginning about 1350, southern Europe began to experience a new concern for cultural and literary activities. We often refer to and think about the Renaissance being a “rebirth.” It was thought to be such because it marks the emergence from the period that was known as the Dark Ages.

We have already noted that during the latter part of The Middle Ages, there was a relatively high level of concern about cultural things and scholastic things. But, it did not bring about a definite shift in the direction of men’s interests. The period of The Middle Ages was oriented toward religion; God was the measure—God was the centerpiece—of all things. But in the Renaissance, men began to turn from God to men, and look to men for standards. The Renaissance view of man was individualistic and secular.

We often speak about, and hear about, this as a “humanistic” view of life. And indeed, humanists remain among us today. This humanist movement began in Italy, and the movement would spread northward. In Italy, the movement was indeed strongly secular. North of the Alps, humanism took on a strong religious coloration, especially in the person of some of those who would lead the movement. An important factor in spreading humanism, by the way, was the invention of the moveable type in 1450—the invention of the printing press.

Nationalism

Here was a third factor that helped to bring about the Reformation, and that is Nationalism. As The Middle Ages waned, the feudalism associated with the period began to break down. In Italy, there began to be seen, and to develop, powerful city-states. However, in northwestern Europe, there was a different political structure which was developing. It was called the “nation-state,” the difference being that the city-state was much smaller in focus. However, the nation-state built strong central governments, and it was based upon those people of an entire region—of an entire area—that shared a common language, or shared common traditions, and so on. And as these larger central governments began to grow in power, they would be able to resist the pope and the Roman church. By 1500, England, France, Spain, Portugal, and some others, had all succeeded in building strong central governments. And once again, the more powerful these central governments became, the more resistance to Rome—quite a far cry from what we saw happening in The Middle Ages.